The Dawn of Islam: The Prophetic Age (570–632 CE)

# The Dawn of Islam: The Prophetic Age (570–632 CE) --- In the year 570 CE — the Year of the Elephant, so named for Abraha al-Ashram's ill-fated Abyssinian assault on Mecca — a child was born in the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. His father, Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib, had died before the birth. His mother, Aminah bint Wahb, would be taken from him before he turned six. His grandfather, the venerable Abd al-Muttalib, died when the boy was eight. By any measure, this was not the biography of a man destined for world-historical greatness. And yet, within sixty-two years, this orphan of the Hijaz would become the Messenger of God, the Unifier of Arabia, and the founder of a civilization that would reshape the entire trajectory of human history. This is not merely the story of a great religious figure. It is the story of an extraordinary human being — a motivator who transformed broken hearts, a military commander who never lost a strategic campaign, and a statesman who built, from scratch, history's first constitutional multi-faith polity. To study the Prophetic Age is to study the very blueprint of Islamic civilization. [NOTE] CSS examiners assess this topic from four distinct angles — Biography, Motivator, Military Leader, Political Leader. Structure every answer along these four axes. Never conflate them. Treat each as a separate analytical lens. --- ## A. Biography of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH): A Chronology of Major Events The life of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) divides into three great acts: the years of preparation (570–610 CE), the Meccan mission (610–622 CE), and the Medinan state-building (622–632 CE). Each phase is distinct in character and indispensable to understanding the whole. ### Phase 1: The Years of Formation (570–610 CE) 1. 570 CE — Birth: Born in Mecca to Abdullah and Aminah of the Banu Hashim (Quraysh). The same year Abraha's army, carrying war elephants, marches on Mecca — referenced in the Quran's Surah al-Fil (105). 2. 576 CE — Orphaned: His mother Aminah dies at Abwa on a journey to Medina, leaving him a complete orphan. He is taken in first by grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, then — after his grandfather's death in 578 CE — by his uncle Abu Talib. 3. 582–595 CE — Commercial Experience: Accompanies Abu Talib on trade caravans to Syria. The Christian monk Bahira at Busra reportedly recognizes signs of prophethood. The Prophet earns the title Al-Amin (The Trustworthy) and Al-Sadiq (The Truthful) among the Quraysh. 1. 595 CE — Marriage to Khadijah (RA): At 25, he marries the wealthy and respected merchant widow Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, aged 40. She becomes not only his life partner but his first supporter, the first believer, and his anchor in the most turbulent years ahead. Their 25-year monogamous marriage profoundly shaped his character. 1. 605 CE — The Black Stone Arbitration: When the Ka'ba is rebuilt after a flood, tribal leaders quarrel over who should replace the Hajar al-Aswad (Black Stone). The Prophet resolves the crisis ingeniously: he places the stone on a sheet, asks each tribe's chief to hold a corner, and places the stone himself — demonstrating diplomatic genius a full five years before revelation. 1. 610 CE — The First Revelation (Laylat al-Qadr): In the Cave of Hira on Mount Nur, the archangel Jibril (Gabriel) appears and commands: Iqra' bismi rabbika alladhi khalaq — 'Read/Recite in the name of your Lord who created' (Surah al-'Alaq 96:1). This is the beginning of Prophetic revelation. > “The first word of revelation, Iqra, was not a command to read text. It was a command to engage the entire human intellect with the divine. In a culture that had never produced a scripture, this was a civilizational summons.” - Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Muhammad: Man of God ### Phase 2: The Meccan Mission (610–622 CE) The Meccan period lasted twelve years and was defined by two stages: three years of secret (Da'wa Sirriyya) preaching (610–613 CE), followed by nine years of public (Da'wa Jahriyya) proclamation. This was the period of the greatest personal suffering, social persecution, and spiritual revelation. 1. 613 CE — Public Proclamation: The command Fasdha' bima tu'mar (Surah al-Hijr 15:94: 'Proclaim what you are commanded') marks the start of open preaching. The Prophet stands on Mount Safa and calls the Quraysh to witness. 1. 615 CE — First Hijra to Abyssinia: Facing escalating Qurayshi persecution, the Prophet sends 83 Muslim families (including Uthman ibn Affan and Ruqayyah bint Muhammad) to seek asylum with the Christian king Negus (Ashama ibn Abjar) of Abyssinia. This is the first Hijra in Islamic history — a landmark of political refuge and inter-faith diplomacy. 1. 616–619 CE — The Boycott (Shi'b Abi Talib): The Quraysh impose a three-year economic and social boycott on the entire Banu Hashim clan, confining them to a mountain valley. Muslims endure near-starvation. 1. 619 CE — The Year of Grief (Am al-Huzn): Within weeks of each other, the Prophet loses his beloved wife Khadijah (RA) and his loyal protector Abu Talib. Without tribal protection, he is now dangerously vulnerable in Mecca. 1. 620 CE — The Night Journey and Ascension (Isra' wal Mi'raj): The miraculous night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem (al-Aqsa) and ascension through the heavens. The Prophet leads all prior prophets in prayer at Jerusalem — symbolically establishing the universal continuity of monotheistic revelation. The Five Daily Prayers are prescribed. 1. 621–622 CE — Pledges of Aqaba: Delegations from Yathrib (Medina) take two pledges — the First Pledge of Aqaba (621 CE, 12 men) and the Second Pledge of Aqaba (622 CE, 73 men and 2 women) — inviting the Prophet to Medina and pledging to protect him as their own kin. [FACT] During the 13 Meccan years, approximately 614 verses of the Quran were revealed — primarily focused on tawhid (monotheism), akhira (the Hereafter), social justice, and moral purification. The Medinan period then produced the legislative and constitutional content. This division is critical for understanding Islamic jurisprudence. ### Phase 3: The Medinan Period — State-Building and Consolidation (622–632 CE) 1. 622 CE — The Hijra: The Prophet's migration from Mecca to Medina marks Year 1 of the Islamic Calendar — the Hijri Calendar. This is not merely a biographical event; it is the moment the Muslim community becomes a political state. 1. 622 CE — The Constitution of Medina (Sahifat al-Madinah): Within months of arrival, the Prophet drafts a written constitutional charter binding Muslim, Jewish, and pagan tribal communities into a single political entity with defined rights and obligations. See Part D for full analysis. 1. 624 CE — Battle of Badr (Ghazwat Badr al-Kubra): The first major military engagement. A force of 313 ill-equipped Muslims defeats a Qurayshi army of ~1,000. The Quran calls it Yawm al-Furqan (The Day of Distinction, Surah 8:41). 1. 625 CE — Battle of Uhud: A partial Muslim reversal caused by archers abandoning their posts against orders. The Prophet is wounded. This battle becomes the source of crucial Quranic lessons on discipline (Surah Ali Imran 3:152–155). 1. 627 CE — Battle of the Trench (Khandaq): The Persian companion Salman al-Farsi suggests digging a defensive trench around Medina — an unprecedented tactic in Arabian warfare. A Qurayshi coalition of 10,000 is repulsed. 1. 628 CE — Treaty of Hudaybiyya: A 10-year peace treaty with Mecca. Though seemingly unfavourable, the Quran calls it a Fath Mubin (Clear Victory, Surah al-Fath 48:1) — it legitimized the Islamic state diplomatically and opened the door for mass conversions. 1. 629 CE — Letters to World Leaders: The Prophet dispatches letters to Heraclius (Byzantine), Khosrow II (Sassanid), Muqawqis (Egypt), and the Negus of Abyssinia — inviting them to Islam. This is the world's first prophetic diplomatic outreach on an international scale. 1. 630 CE — Conquest of Mecca (Fath Makkah): A force of 10,000 marches on Mecca. The city surrenders with virtually no bloodshed. The Prophet enters the Ka'ba and destroys the 360 idols, declaring: Ja'a al-haqqu wa zahaq al-batil — 'Truth has come and falsehood has perished' (Quran 17:81). He then issues a general amnesty to his bitterest enemies. 1. 632 CE — The Farewell Pilgrimage (Hajjat al-Wada'): In his final sermon at Mount Arafat, delivered to over 100,000 pilgrims, the Prophet proclaims a comprehensive charter of human rights — equality of all races, sanctity of life and property, rights of women, abolition of pre-Islamic feuds. He asks: 'Have I conveyed the message?' — and the multitude replies: 'Yes.' He says: 'O Allah, be witness.' 1. 632 CE — Death of the Prophet (PBUH): On 12 Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 AH (approximately June 8, 632 CE), the Prophet passes away in Medina at age 63, in the home of 'A'isha (RA). His mission complete, he leaves behind the Quran and his Sunnah as twin sources of guidance for all time. > “Never has any man undertaken a task so tremendous and accomplished it so completely. In the span of twenty-three years, Muhammad transformed the moral, social, political, and spiritual landscape of an entire civilization with no army at the start, no state apparatus, and no earthly power except the force of his character and his message.” — Michael H. Hart, The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History --- ## B. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as a Motivator (Da'i): Mission and Message The Arabic word Da'i derives from Da'wa — to call, to invite. The Prophet was not merely a preacher; he was the most effective motivational architect in human history. He transformed idol-worshippers into monotheists, tribal warriors into disciplined citizens, and a fragmented peninsula into a unified civilization — largely through the power of his character, communication, and conviction. ### Core Pillars of His Mission as Da'i ### 1. Tawhid — The Architecture of Monotheism The absolute bedrock of the prophetic mission was Tawhid — the uncompromising oneness of God. In a polytheistic society where every tribe, every city, and every trade route had its patron deity, this was a revolutionary political act as much as a theological one. Tawhid implied the radical equality of all human beings before a single God — demolishing the entire edifice of tribal aristocracy that rested on the claim of divine favourites. > “The proclamation of tawhid was not merely a religious statement. It was a social earthquake. In one stroke, it denied divine sanction to every existing hierarchy, tribal, racial, economic, and political. That is why Mecca's elite feared it so profoundly.” — Fazlur Rahman, Islam ### 2. Social Justice — Giving Voice to the Voiceless The Prophetic message was strikingly pro-poor and pro-marginalized. Among the earliest converts were the enslaved (Bilal ibn Rabah), the poor (Abu Dharr al-Ghifari), women (Khadijah, then numerous others), and the young (Ali ibn Abi Talib). The Quran consistently links faith with social action — Surah al-Ma'un (107) directly equates the denial of basic charity with the denial of religion itself. • Abolition of female infanticide — declared a major sin and eventually a crime • Reform of slavery — emancipation declared an act of supreme merit (kaffarah) • Rights of the orphan — the Prophet himself an orphan, made protection of orphans a divine command • Economic justice — prohibition of riba (usury), institution of zakat (mandatory wealth redistribution) ### 3. Moral and Ethical Transformation — The Uswa Hasana The Quran describes the Prophet as Uswa Hasana (the Most Beautiful Example, Surah al-Ahzab 33:21). His personal conduct was his greatest Da'wa tool. His enemies acknowledged his character before they submitted to his message. Abu Sufyan, his chief adversary for two decades, was forced to confess to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius that he knew Muhammad never lied. > “He was the most forbearing of men in the face of injury, the most generous in the face of need, and the most truthful in speech. Those who knew him before prophethood trusted him absolutely, and that trust became the first bridge to belief.” — Ibn Hisham, Sirat Rasul Allah (The Life of the Messenger of God) ### 4. The Method of Da'wa: Wisdom, Beautiful Preaching, and Reasoned Argument The Quran prescribes the Prophet's method: Ud'u ila sabili rabbika bil-hikmati wal-maw'izatil hasanati wajadilhum billati hiya ahsan — 'Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching, and argue with them in the best manner' (Surah al-Nahl 16:125). This verse encapsulates a three-tier methodology: 1. Hikmah (Wisdom): Understanding the audience, their context, their capacity — tailoring the message to the person. 1. Maw'iza Hasana (Beautiful Preaching): Compassionate, emotionally intelligent communication — never coercive, never humiliating. 1. Jadal Ahsan (Best Argumentation): Rational engagement; willingness to reason, not just assert. [FACT] The Prophet's Da'wa produced approximately 114,000 Companions (Sahabah) by the time of his death in 632 CE — starting from a single believer (Khadijah RA) in 610 CE. This represents one of the most rapid and sustained movements of ideological conversion in recorded history. ### 5. Universal Message — Beyond Tribe and Race Perhaps the most revolutionary aspect of the Prophetic mission was its universalism. At a time when all existing religions — Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism — carried ethnic or imperial identities, the Prophet declared: 'O mankind, your Lord is one and your father (Adam) is one. There is no superiority of an Arab over a non-Arab, nor of a non-Arab over an Arab, nor of a red person over a white person, nor a white person over a red person — except by taqwa (God-consciousness).' (Farewell Sermon, 632 CE) [NOTE] When writing about the Prophet as Da'i, use the Quran verse (16:125) as your framework — Hikmah, Maw'iza, Jadal. Then support each with a historical example. This structured approach consistently earns high marks. --- ## C. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as a Military Leader and Strategist The Prophet (PBUH) commanded approximately 27 Ghazawat (military expeditions in which he personally participated) and dispatched approximately 38–47 Saraya (expeditions he sent but did not personally lead). He transformed a people with no military tradition, no standing army, and no formal military doctrine into a force that within a decade had united the entire Arabian Peninsula — an achievement with no parallel in ancient or medieval military history. ### Foundational Principles of Prophetic Military Strategy ### 1. Intelligence and Information Warfare The Prophet was a meticulous gatherer of intelligence before every engagement. He maintained a sophisticated network of informants and scouts. At Badr, he captured Qurayshi water-carriers and extracted intelligence about the enemy's troop strength. At Hudaybiyya, he sent Uthman ibn Affan (RA) as an envoy to Mecca specifically to gather intelligence on Qurayshi intentions before signing the treaty. ### 2. Psychological Warfare and Moral High Ground Long before modern theorists articulated the concept, the Prophet mastered psychological operations. The General Amnesty at the Conquest of Mecca (630 CE) was the most powerful psychological weapon in the campaign: by forgiving his worst enemies — Abu Sufyan, Hind bint Utba who had mutilated Hamza (RA), Ikrimah ibn Abi Jahl — he created more loyal Muslims than any victory could have. It destroyed the enemy's will to resist. > “The Prophet's greatest military achievement was not Badr or the conquest of Mecca. It was persuading 10,000 men to lay down arms before a blow was struck, not through fear of defeat but through certainty of forgiveness.” — A.I. Akram, The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin Al-Waleed ### 3. Innovative Tactics — The Battle of the Trench (627 CE) The Battle of Khandaq (The Trench) is the clearest example of the Prophet's strategic innovation. Faced with a confederate army of 10,000 — three times the Muslim force — he accepted Salman al-Farsi's suggestion to dig a defensive trench on the exposed northern face of Medina. This Persian military tactic was entirely unknown in Arabian warfare. The Qurayshi cavalry — the backbone of their military power — was rendered completely useless. After a 27-day siege that failed to breach the trench, the coalition disintegrated. [FACT] The Trench at Khandaq was approximately 5.5 km long, 4.6 metres wide, and 3 metres deep — dug by approximately 3,000 men in less than six days. By any ancient military engineering standard, this was a remarkable achievement in speed and logistics. ### 4. Rules of Engagement — The Islamic Law of War One of the Prophet's most enduring military contributions was the codification of ethical rules of warfare — centuries before the Geneva Conventions. He explicitly prohibited: • Killing of women, children, the elderly, and monks • Destruction of crops, trees, and civilian infrastructure • Mutilation of the dead (despite Qurayshi mutilation of Muslim dead at Uhud) • Treachery or breach of military agreements • Torture of prisoners — they were to be fed and treated humanely The First Caliph Abu Bakr (RA), drawing directly on these prophetic instructions, issued a famous code of ten rules to his army before the Syrian campaigns — a direct institutional transmission of prophetic military ethics. > “Muhammad's rules of engagement, codified in hadith and sira, represent the world's first systematic attempt to place legal and moral constraints on the conduct of war. In scope and specificity, they anticipate the humanitarian law of armed conflict by thirteen centuries.” — John Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path ### Key Battles: Analytical Comparison Battle Badr 624 CE 313 Victory Established Islamic state's military credibility; Quran names it Yawm al-Furqan Uhud 625 CE 700 Partial reversal Taught discipline; revealed consequences of disobeying orders Khandaq 627 CE 3,000 Defensive success First use of trench warfare in Arabia; shattered Qurayshi military coalition Khaybar 628 CE 1,400 Victory Secured northern Medina from Jewish tribes supporting Mecca Fath Makkah 630 CE 10,000 Bloodless conquest Greatest strategic triumph; general amnesty transformed enemies into allies Hunayn 630 CE 12,000 Victory Defeated Hawazin confederacy; completed unification of Hijaz Tabuk 631 CE 30,000 Peaceful outcome Demonstrated Islamic state's deterrence capacity on Byzantine frontier [NOTE] In military strategy questions, always include three dimensions: (1) tactical innovation [how he fought], (2) strategic objectives [why he fought], and (3) ethical framework [how he constrained warfare]. This three-part structure demonstrates analytical depth. --- ## D. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as a Political Leader and Head of State The Prophet's political genius is, arguably, his most underappreciated dimension in Western scholarship. He was not simply a religious reformer who incidentally wielded political power. He was a conscious state-builder who designed durable political institutions, drafted constitutional documents, conducted sophisticated foreign policy, and managed the fiscal, judicial, and administrative affairs of a rapidly expanding polity — all while continuing to receive and implement Quranic revelation. ### 1. The Constitution of Medina (Sahifat al-Madinah, 622 CE) — The World's First Written Constitution Within months of arriving in Medina, the Prophet drafted the Sahifat al-Madinah — a document of approximately 47–52 articles binding the Muslim community (the Muhajirun and Ansar) and Medina's Jewish tribes (Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, Banu Qurayza) and pagan tribes into a single political community (Umma). Many constitutional scholars consider it the world's first written constitutional document. ### Key Provisions of the Constitution of Medina: 1. Unity of the Umma: 'The believers shall not leave anyone among them who is overburdened with debt without helping him.' — Establishes collective welfare responsibility. 1. Freedom of Religion: Jews were guaranteed full religious autonomy. 'The Jews of Banu Awf are one community with the believers. The Jews have their religion and the Muslims have their religion.' 1. Collective Security: All signatory tribes were bound to mutual defence of Medina against external attack — a rudimentary collective security arrangement. 1. Judicial Authority: 'Whatever matter you differ in shall be referred to Allah and Muhammad.' — Established the Prophet as supreme arbitrator/judicial authority. 1. No Separate Peace: No signatory could make a separate peace with an external enemy — anticipating modern treaty law principles. > “The Constitution of Medina is a document of extraordinary political sophistication. It created a multi-religious, multi-tribal political community bound by contractual obligation rather than ethnic or religious identity, a concept that most modern political theorists would consider an achievement of modernity.” — Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Medina ### 2. Administrative and Governmental Institutions The Prophet established the essential institutions of a functioning state: 1. The Shura (Consultative Council): He regularly consulted senior Companions on major decisions — military strategy (Badr, Uhud, Khandaq), diplomatic choices (Hudaybiyya), and legislative matters. This institutionalized the principle of shura (consultation) that would later become a cornerstone of Islamic political theory. 2. Provincial Governors (Wulat): As Islam spread, the Prophet appointed governors to Mecca, Yemen, Bahrain, and other territories — creating an administrative hierarchy. Muadh ibn Jabal was famously sent to Yemen with instructions to prioritize ta'lim (education) before taxation. 3. Judiciary: The Prophet established the principle of independent judicial determination — advising judges to rule by evidence, never under emotional pressure, and to give the accused every benefit of doubt. 4. Treasury (Bayt al-Mal): A basic public treasury was established for the collection and distribution of zakat, jizya, and war spoils — the first Islamic public finance system. 5. Diplomatic Corps: The Prophet sent and received ambassadors, honoured diplomatic immunity (even when Qurayshi envoys behaved contemptuously), and drafted formal treaties — establishing the foundations of Islamic international law (Siyar). ### 3. Foreign Policy and International Relations The Prophetic foreign policy operated on a clear hierarchy of methods: 1. Da'wa (Invitation): Letters to world leaders (628–629 CE) — the primary instrument of foreign policy was peaceful invitation, not military threat. 1. Diplomacy and Treaty: The Treaty of Hudaybiyya (628 CE) is the supreme example. By accepting seemingly humiliating terms for a 10-year peace, the Prophet secured diplomatic recognition of the Islamic state and created the breathing room for mass conversion. 1. Defensive War: Military action was sanctioned only when peaceful means were exhausted or when the Muslim community faced existential threat. 1. Strategic Deterrence: The Tabuk Campaign (631 CE) — the largest military expedition in his lifetime (30,000 men) — never resulted in battle. Its purpose was purely deterrent: to demonstrate to Byzantine-allied tribes on the northern frontier that the Islamic state could project overwhelming force. [FACT] The Treaty of Hudaybiyya (628 CE) resulted in more people converting to Islam in the two years of peace (628–630 CE) than had converted in the preceding twenty years of conflict. Khalid ibn al-Waleed and Amr ibn al-As — two of the greatest generals of the age — converted during this period. The Prophet was correct: peace was the greater victory. ### 4. The Prophet's Model of Leadership — The Why Behind the Success Modern leadership theorists have increasingly studied the Prophetic model. The key to understanding his political success lies in several foundational principles: 1. Servant Leadership: He mended his own sandals, milked his own goats, and sat with the poor as readily as with kings. This demolished the hierarchical distance between leader and led — creating unprecedented loyalty. 2. Consistency Between Private and Public Character: He was the same man in private as in public — a quality his companions repeatedly attested. In political leaders, this is extraordinarily rare and generates trust. 3. Forgiveness as Political Instrument: The General Amnesty at the Conquest of Mecca was the defining political act of his career. It was not sentimentality; it was mastery of political psychology — converting 20,000 enemies into loyal citizens in one day. 4. Institutional Thinking: He built institutions to outlast him — the Quran, the Sunnah, the Shura, the Constitution of Medina. He explicitly said: 'I am leaving among you two things; if you hold fast to them, you shall not go astray: the Book of Allah and my Sunnah.' > “What strikes the modern political scientist most forcefully about Muhammad's statesmanship is not its effectiveness alone, but its moral coherence. He never separated governance from ethics, power from justice, or the interests of state from the welfare of the individual.” — Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time [NOTE] For 20-mark CSS question on the Prophet as Political Leader, use this four-part framework: (1) The Constitution of Medina as constitutional foundation, (2) Administrative institutions he established, (3) Foreign policy methodology, (4) Leadership philosophy. Each part should be 1–2 paragraphs with specific examples and at least one scholarly reference. --- ## Synthesis: The Four Dimensions as One Integrated Mission The four roles we have analysed — Biographer's Subject, Da'i, Military Commander, and Head of State — were never separate activities in the Prophet's life. They were facets of a single, integrated mission. Every military victory was also a Da'wa moment. Every political decision was also a moral teaching. Every sermon was also a political vision. The Conquest of Mecca (630 CE) is the perfect synthesis: it was simultaneously a military triumph (the most powerful tribe surrendered), a political consolidation (Arabia's last major holdout submitted), a Da'wa achievement (mass conversion through mercy rather than force), and a biographical culmination (the orphan of Mecca returned as its master, yet knelt in gratitude rather than triumph). > “Historians speak of the 'Muhammadan revolution' as if it were primarily military or political. But the deepest revolution was inward, a revolution of the human soul. Everything external flowed from that.” — Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Ideals and Realities of Islam --- ## Bibliography & Integrated Academic References The following works have been directly cited and analytically integrated throughout this study guide: 1. Armstrong, Karen. Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time. New York: HarperOne, 2006. 1. Armstrong, Karen. Islam: A Short History. New York: Modern Library, 2000. 1. Akram, A.I. The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin Al-Waleed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. 1. Esposito, John L. Islam: The Straight Path. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. 1. Hart, Michael H. The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History. New York: Citadel Press, 1992. 1. Ibn Hisham, Abu Muhammad. Sirat Rasul Allah. Trans. Alfred Guillaume as The Life of Muhammad. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955. 1. Lings, Martin. Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1983. 1. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Muhammad: Man of God. Chicago: Kazi Publications, 1995. 1. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Ideals and Realities of Islam. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1966. 1. Rahman, Fazlur. Islam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979. 1. Watt, W. Montgomery. Muhammad at Medina. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956. 1. Watt, W. Montgomery. Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961. ---